Three-dimensional analytical techniques for evaluation of osseointegrated titanium implants

Osseointegration, the direct bonding of titanium implant materials with bone, is critical for implant success where nanostructured surface features contribute to nano-osseointegration. However, we also know that features and processes on the microscale influence the biocompatibility of implant materials. We highlight the advantages of using mutlilength scale analyses, focusing on three-dimensional techniques, ranging from X-ray microcomputed tomography, to focused ion beam, to high resolution electron tomography to identify markers of osseointegration. A titanium implant with modified biomimetic coating studied in vitro and in vivo at various time points is used to exemplify the complementary information gained from three-dimensional analyses from the micro- to nanoscale.