Advances in etching of 2D nanomaterials: Research challenges and advanced devices

Etching is central to the processing of two-dimensional (2D) materials, providing atomic-level precision needed to tailor their structural, electronic, and optical properties. Despite advances in plasma, chemical, and atomic layer etching, major challenges remain in achieving reliable depth control, defect management, and anisotropy at scales compatible with industrial manufacturing. The intrinsic sensitivity of 2D materials to processing conditions, coupled with substrate interactions, often limits reproducibility and device performance. Future progress will depend on methods that unite throughput with atomic precision, including resist-free and direct-write approaches that bypass conventional lithography, selective chemistries for multi-material heterostructures, and artificial intelligence–driven process control for real-time optimization. Advances in substrate engineering and interfacial selectivity will also be pivotal for wafer-scale integration. By defining key barriers and highlighting emerging opportunities, this review identifies the strategies most likely to transform 2D etching into a scalable platform for electronics, photonics, quantum technologies, and energy devices.