Individual, Independent, and Joint Associations of Toxic Metals and Manganese on Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy: Results from the MIREC Canadian Pregnancy Cohort

BACKGROUND: Toxic metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg), may be associated with a higher risk of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia, whereas manganese (Mn) is an essential metal that may be protective. OBJECTIVES: We estimated the individual, independent, and joint associations of Pb, Cd, As, Hg, and Mn on the risk of developing gestational hypertension and preeclampsia in a cohort of Canadian women.