A radiative–conductive–convective approach to calculate thaw season ground surface temperatures for modelling frost table dynamics

Abstract The frost table depth is a critical state variable for hydrological modelling in cold regions as frozen ground controls runoff generation, subsurface water storage and the permafrost regime. Calculation of the frost table depth is typically performed using a modified version of the Stefan equation, which is driven with the ground surface temperature. Ground surface temperatures have usually been estimated as linear functions of air …