Impacts of direct and indirect paternity cues on paternal care in a singing toadfish

Effort spent on raising unrelated offspring can be costly and wasteful, and parents are expected to reduce their level of investment when they have low or uncertain relatedness to the young under their care. Although the relationship between parental certainty and parental investment is theoretically well established, empirical support has been mixed. Here, we report on a series of lab and field experiments that test whether paternal investment …