Characterizing gender-based violence in the context of water, sanitation, and hygiene: A scoping review of evidence in low- and middle-income countries

The right to water and sanitation is recognized as fundamental to attaining all other rights. Despite the progress in access to water and sanitation in Low-and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC), women and girls are vulnerable to various forms of violence when meeting their water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) needs. The findings on WaSH related gender-based violence (GBV) in LMICs are fragmented, and thus may not be able to inform policies and interventions aimed at addressing vulnerabilities to WaSH related violence. This scoping review characterizes forms of WaSH related violence against women in LMICs. A review of 29 peer-reviewed papers emerging from a search in Scopus, Medline, Embase and Web of Science reveals four dimensions of WaSH-GBV: structural, physical, psychological and sexual. We observed that gender norms reproduce power relations that intersect with drivers of inequities, social exclusion and marginalization to shape patterns of violence. Based on these findings, we propose a conceptual framework showcasing how contextual factors produce and reinforce WaSH related gender-based violence. We reflect on the implications of these findings for policy and suggest the need for WaSH practitioners and researchers to evaluate and measure WaSH access beyond the Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) service ladder. Further research on WaSH-GBV is essential to facilitate global efforts on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for gender equality (SDG 5); and ensuring access to water and sanitation for all (SDG 6).