The role of 3D preclinical models in the Era of precision medicine: A bladder cancer perspective

Bladder cancer (BCa) remains one of the most challenging malignancies in oncology, driven by deep molecular heterogeneity, dynamic tumor evolution and complex tumor-microenvironment interactions. Despite advances in molecular characterization and the introduction of new treatments, translating biological knowledge into meaningful clinical benefits remains a major bottleneck. In recent years, next-generation 3D preclinical models have emerged as essential tools to recapitulate BCa complexity, offering new opportunities to investigate tumor biology and support the development of personalized treatment strategies. This review provides an overview of available 3D models for BCa, discusses their application and highlights their growing integration into clinical trials to guide real-time therapeutic decisions.