Expect the Unexpected! Groundwater Flow in Karstified Carbonate Aquifers

Aquifers in carbonate rocks characteristically display triple porosity, the most complex type of groundwater flow system. The complexity arises from antecedent geological conditions, from local geomorphology and climate, and from the patterns of solutional conduits (including accessible caves) and their relationships with any matrix or fracture flow. Much is being learned from study of calcite and other precipitates in such caves. Where not directly accessible, karst aquifers are best approached by study of natural springs, recharge sink points and dye tracing; wells and boreholes are secondary sources. Double continuum and triple porosity designs are most suitable for computer predictive modeling.