Targeting the MR1-MAIT Cell Axis Improves Vaccine Efficacy and Affords Protection against Viral Pathogens

Abstract Mucosa-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are MR1-restricted, innate-like T lymphocytes with tremendous antibacterial and immunomodulatory functions. MAIT cells also sense and respond to viral infections in an MR1-independent fashion. However, whether they can be directly targeted in immunization strategies against viral pathogens is unknown. We addressed this question in multiple wild-type and genetically altered but clinically relevant mouse strains using several vaccine platforms against influenza viruses, poxviruses and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We demonstrate that 5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6-D-ribitylaminouracil (5-OP-RU), a riboflavin-based MR1 ligand of bacterial origin, can synergize with viral vaccines to expand MAIT cells in multiple tissues, reprogram them towards a pro-inflammatory MAIT1 phenotype, license them to bolster mainstream virus-specific CD8 + T cell responses, and potentiate heterosubtypic antiviral protection. Repeated 5-OP-RU administration did not render MAIT cells anergic, thus allowing for its inclusion in prime-boost immunization protocols. Mechanistically, tissue MAIT cell accumulation was due to their robust proliferation, as opposed to altered migratory behavior, and required viral vaccine replication competency, Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and cell-autonomous type I interferon receptor signaling. Furthermore, the observed phenomenon was manifest in young and old female and male mice, and could also be recapitulated in a human cell culture system in which peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to replicating virions and 5-OP-RU. In conclusion, although viruses and virus-based vaccines are devoid of the riboflavin biosynthesis machinery that supplies MR1 ligands, targeting MR1 enhances the efficacy of vaccine-elicited antiviral immunity. We propose 5-OP-RU as a non-classic but potent and versatile vaccine adjuvant against respiratory viruses.