In industrial cities, manufacturing dominates the local economy, the physical environment, and social relations. These cities have often been associated with high levels of air and/or water pollution. The social structure and class relations at workplaces are often polarized, a fact reflected and reproduced in the city's social geography. This was especially true in smaller centers and company towns. The first industrial cities arose in Western Europe and North America in the 19th Century, and contrasted with their compact, preindustrial predecessors. Large-scale production and innovations in transportation technology enabled a separation of home from work. Municipal zoning encouraged the formation of homogeneous land use districts. In the global North, globalization has led to deindustrialization and the rise of postindustrial cities. In the South, especially China, new industrial centers have boomed. Deindustrialization has led to unemployment and social problems. Cities have responded by offering companies tax incentives while marketing their affordability and amenities to employees. Upper-level governments debate whether to assist people or places. The growth of the industrial city has promoted and reflected economic growth, transformed the social and aesthetic experience of its residents, encouraged the growth of state regulation as well as voluntary associations and clubs, and created new possibilities for political association.