An industrial city is an urban place in which manufacturing dominates the local economy and, by extension, the environment and social relations. Such cities have often been associated with high levels of air and/or water pollution. The social structure and class relations of their workplaces are often polarized and this is both reflected and reproduced in a simplified social geography. This was especially true in smaller centers and company towns. The first industrial cities arose in Western Europe and North America in the nineteenth century in contrast to their compact, preindustrial predecessors. Large-scale production and innovations in transportation technology enabled a growing separation of home from work. Municipal zoning regulations encouraged the formation of extensive, homogeneous land-use districts. Because of de-industrialization, in Europe and North America, the industrial city has arguably been supplanted by the postindustrial metropolis. In recent years, the most rapidly growing industrial cities have been those in a handful of developing nations. The growth of the industrial city has promoted as well as reflected economic growth, transformed the social and esthetic experience of its residents, encouraged the growth of state regulation as well as voluntary associations and clubs, and created new possibilities for political association.