Design, results, and interpretation of randomized, controlled trials in congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction

This article discusses how randomized trials can be designed in patients with heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction to provide reliable answers regarding various interventions. Most previous trials have been limited by their small size, short duration, and restricted entry of highly selected patients, leading to unconvincing answers. The effects of treatment on surrogate end points (e.g., exercise tolerance, arrhythmia suppression) do …